Skip to content

Sunflower oil

Sunflower oil is pressed from the seeds of the sunflower. Sunflower oil is also used as a medicine.

Sunflower oil is used for constipation and to lower levels of bad LDL cholesterol.

Some people apply sunflower oil directly to the skin to help heal wounds, skin lesions, psoriasis and arthritis. Sunflower oil is also used as a massage oil.

How does sunflower oil work?

Sunfloweroil is used as a source of unsaturated fats to replace saturated fats in the diet.

How effective is sunflower oil?

There is not enough scientific data to make a statement about the effectiveness of sunflower oil when used to lower levels of bad LDL cholesterol. There is evidence that the use of sunflower oil as part of the diet is more effective than olive oil in lowering levels of bad LDL cholesterol.

There is also a lack of scientific information on the effectiveness of sunflower oil for arthritis and constipation, and when applied to the skin for skin conditions and to help heal wounds.

Further scientific research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of sunflower oil in these applications.

Safety and side effects

Sunfloweroil is safe and harmless when taken orally in appropriate doses. It is not known if use on the skin is safe and harmless.

Precautions and warnings

Allergies to broomrape and related plants: Sunflower oil may cause allergic reactions in people who are sensitive to plants in the Asteraceae/Compositae family. Members of this plant family include broomsedge, chrysanthemums, marigolds, daisies and many others. If you suffer from allergies, you should consult your doctor before using sunflower oil.

Diabetes: A diet rich in sunflower oil appears to increase fasting insulin levels and blood sugar levels. This could increase the risk of arteriosclerosis in people suffering from type 2 diabetes.

Interactions

At this time, there is no information on interactions of sunflower oil with medications or supplements.

Dosage

An appropriate dosage of sunflower oil depends on various factors such as age, state of health and others. At this time, there is insufficient scientific data to make a statement about appropriate dosage ranges for sunflower oil. For this reason, you should follow the dosage instructions on the label and/or consult a doctor or pharmacist before use.

*References:

  1. AbuMweis, S. S., Vanstone, C. A., Ebine, N., Kassis, A., Ausman, L. M., Jones, P. J., and Lichtenstein, A. H. Intake of a single morning dose of standard and novel plant sterol preparations for 4 weeks does not dramatically affect plasma lipid concentrations in humans. J Nutr. 2006;136(4):1012-1016. view abstract.
  2. Aguilera, C. M., Mesa, M. D., Ramirez-Tortosa, M. C., Nestares, M. T., Ros, E., and Gil, A. Sunflower oil does not protect against LDL oxidation as virgin olive oil does in patients with peripheral vascular disease. Clin.Nutr. 2004;23(4):673-681. view abstract.
  3. Albers, R., van der Wielen, R. P., Brink, E. J., Hendriks, H. F., Dorovska-Taran, V. N., and Mohede, I. C. Effects of cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers on immune function in healthy men. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003;57(4):595-603. view abstract.
  4. Allman-Farinelli, M. A., Gomes, K., Favaloro, E. J., and Petocz, P. A diet rich in high-oleic-acid sunflower oil favorably alters low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and factor VII coagulant activity. J.Am.Diet.Assoc. 2005;105(7):1071-1079. view abstract.
  5. Almallah, Y. Z., Ewen, S. W., El-Tahir, A., Mowat, N. A., Brunt, P. W., Sinclair, T. S., Heys, S. D., and Eremin, O. Distal proctocolitis and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs): the mucosal effect in situ. J Clin Immunol. 2000;20(1):68-76. view abstract.
  6. Almallah, Y. Z., Richardson, S., O'Hanrahan, T., Mowat, N. A., Brunt, P. W., Sinclair, T. S., Ewen, S., Heys, S. D., and Eremin, O. Distal procto-colitis, natural cytotoxicity, and essential fatty acids. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 1998;93(5):804-809. view abstract.
  7. Bechoua, S., Dubois, M., Vericel, E., Chapuy, P., Lagarde, M., and Prigent, A. F. Influence of very low dietary intake of marine oil on some functional aspects of immune cells in healthy elderly people. Br.J.Nutr. 2003;89(4):523-531. view abstract.
  8. Binkoski, A. E., Kris-Etherton, P. M., Wilson, T. A., Mountain, M. L., and Nicolosi, R. J. Balance of unsaturated fatty acids is important to a cholesterol-lowering diet: comparison of mid-oleic sunflower oil and olive oil on cardiovascular disease risk factors. J.Am.Diet.Assoc. 2005;105(7):1080-1086. view abstract.
  9. Bosaeus, I. and Andersson, H. Influence of exchanging polyunsaturated fat for carbohydrate on bile acid and cholesterol excretion in ileostomy patients. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 1988;42(1):15-21. View abstract.
  10. Castro, P., Miranda, J. L., Gomez, P., Escalante, D. M., Segura, F. L., Martin, A., Fuentes, F., Blanco, A., Ordovas, J. M., and Jimenez, F. P. Comparison of an oleic acid enriched-diet vs NCEP-I diet on LDL susceptibility to oxidative modifications. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2000;54(1):61-67. view abstract.
  11. Cater, N. B. and Denke, M. A. Behenic acid is a cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acid in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73(1):41-44. view abstract.
  12. Cater, N. B., Heller, H. J., and Denke, M. A. Comparison of the effects of medium-chain triacylglycerols, palm oil, and high oleic acid sunflower oil on plasma triacylglycerol fatty acids and lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in humans. Am.J Clin.Nutr. 1997;65(1):41-45. view abstract.
  13. Choudhury, N., Truswell, A. S., and McNeil, Y. Comparison of plasma lipids and vitamin E in young and middle-aged subjects on potato crisps fried in palmolein and highly oleic sunflower oil. Ann.Nutr.Metab 1997;41(3):137-148. view abstract.
  14. Cobiac, L., Nestel, P. J., Wing, L. M., and Howe, P. R. A low-sodium diet supplemented with fish oil lowers blood pressure in the elderly. J Hypertens. 1992;10(1):87-92. view abstract.
  15. Declair, V. The usefulness of topical application of essential fatty acids (EFA) to prevent pressure ulcers. Ostomy.Wound.Manage. 1997;43(5):48-52, 54. View abstract.
  16. Demonty, I., Chan, Y. M., Pelled, D., and Jones, P. J. Fish-oil esters of plant sterols improve the lipid profile of dyslipidemic subjects more than do fish-oil or sunflower oil esters of plant sterols. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84(6):1534-1542. view abstract.
  17. Drews, L. M., Kies, C., and Fox, H. M. Effect of dietary fiber on copper, zinc, and magnesium utilization by adolescent boys. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1979;32(9):1893-1897. view abstract.
  18. Elmadfa, I. and Park, E. Impact of diets with corn oil or olive/sunflower oils on DNA damage in healthy young men. Eur.J.Nutr. 1999;38(6):286-292. view abstract.
  19. Filteau, S. M., Lietz, G., Mulokozi, G., Bilotta, S., Henry, C. J., and Tomkins, A. M. Milk cytokines and subclinical breast inflammation in Tanzanian women: effects of dietary red palm oil or sunflower oil supplementation. Immunology 1999;97(4):595-600. view abstract.
  20. Freese, R. and Mutanen, M. Postprandial changes in platelet function and coagulation factors after high-fat meals with different fatty acid compositions. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 1995;49(9):658-664. View abstract.
  21. Godard, C., Bustos, M., Munoz, M., and Nussle, D. Value of a chicken-based formula for refeeding of children with protracted diarrhea and malnutrition in a developing country. J.Pediatr.Gastroenterol.Nutr. 1989;9(4):473-480. view abstract.
  22. Gustafsson, I. B., Vessby, B., Ohrvall, M., and Nydahl, M. A diet rich in monounsaturated rapeseed oil reduces the lipoprotein cholesterol concentration and increases the relative content of n-3 fatty acids in serum in hyperlipidemic subjects. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1994;59(3):667-674. view abstract.
  23. Ho, M., Maple, C., Bancroft, A., McLaren, M., and Belch, J. J. The beneficial effects of omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acid supplementation on red blood cell rheology. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 1999;61(1):13-17. view abstract.
  24. Insull, W., Jr, Silvers, A., Hicks, L., and Probstfield, J. L. Plasma lipid effects of three common vegetable oils in reduced-fat diets of free-living adults. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1994;60(2):195-202. view abstract.
  25. Jantti, J., Isomaki, H., Laitinen, O., Nikkari, T., Seppala, E., and Vapaatalo, H. Linoleic acid treatment in inflammatory arthritis. Int.J.Clin.Pharmacol.Ther.Toxicol. 1985;23(2):89-91. view abstract.
  26. Junker, R., Kratz, M., Neufeld, M., Erren, M., Nofer, J. R., Schulte, H., Nowak-Gottl, U., Assmann, G., and Wahrburg, U. Effects of diets containing olive oil, sunflower oil, or rapeseed oil on the hemostatic system. Thromb.Haemost. 2001;85(2):280-286. view abstract.
  27. Khan, F., Elherik, K., Bolton-Smith, C., Barr, R., Hill, A., Murrie, I., and Belch, J. J. The effects of dietary fatty acid supplementation on endothelial function and vascular tone in healthy subjects. Cardiovasc.Res. 10-1-2003;59(4):955-962. view abstract.
  28. Kohlmeier, M., Riesen, W., and Schlierf, G. Metabolic changes in healthy men using fat-modified diets. I. Disposition of serum cholesterol. Ann.Nutr.Metab 1988;32(1):1-9. view abstract.
  29. Kolacek, S., Grguric, J., Percl, M., and Booth, I. W. Home-made modular diet versus semi-elemental formula in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea of infancy: a prospective randomized trial. Eur.J.Pediatr. 1996;155(12):997-1001. view abstract.
  30. Kratz, M., Gulbahce, E., von, Eckardstein A., Cullen, P., Cignarella, A., Assmann, G., and Wahrburg, U. Dietary mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids similarly affect LDL size in healthy men and women. J.Nutr. 2002;132(4):715-718. view abstract.
  31. Kuriyan, R., Gopinath, N., Vaz, M., and Kurpad, A. V. Use of rice bran oil in patients with hyperlipidaemia. Natl.Med.J.India 2005;18(6):292-296. view abstract.
  32. Larsen, L. F., Bladbjerg, E. M., Jespersen, J., and Marckmann, P. Effects of dietary fat quality and quantity on postprandial activation of blood coagulation factor VII. Arterioscler.Thromb.Vasc.Biol 1997;17(11):2904-2909. View abstract.
  33. Larsen, L. F., Jespersen, J., and Marckmann, P. Are olive oil diets antithrombotic? Diets enriched with olive, rapeseed, or sunflower oil affect postprandial factor VII differently. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1999;70(6):976-982. view abstract.
  34. Malpuech-Brugere, C., Verboeket-van de Venne WP, Mensink, R. P., Arnal, M. A., Morio, B., Brandolini, M., Saebo, A., Lassel, T. S., Chardigny, J. M., Sebedio, J. L., and Beaufrere, B. Effects of two conjugated linoleic acid isomers on body fat mass in overweight humans. Obes Res 2004;12(4):591-598. view abstract.
  35. Maple, C., McLaren, M., Bancroft, A., Ho, M., and Belch, J. J. Dietary supplementation with omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids reduces induced white blood cell aggregation in healthy volunteers. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 1998;58(5):365-368. view abstract.
  36. McDonald, B. E., Gerrard, J. M., Bruce, V. M., and Corner, E. J. Comparison of the effect of canola oil and sunflower oil on plasma lipids and lipoproteins and on in vivo thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin production in healthy young men. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1989;50(6):1382-1388. view abstract.
  37. Menendez, S., Falcon, L., Simon, D. R., and Landa, N. Efficacy of ozonized sunflower oil in the treatment of tinea pedis. Mycoses 2002;45(8):329-332. view abstract.
  38. Middleton, S. J., Naylor, S., Woolner, J., and Hunter, J. O. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in the maintenance of remission of ulcerative colitis. Aliment.Pharmacol.Ther. 2002;16(6):1131-1135. view abstract.
  39. Montoya, M. T., Porres, A., Serrano, S., Fruchart, J. C., Mata, P., Gerique, J. A., and Castro, G. R. Fatty acid saturation of the diet and plasma lipid concentrations, lipoprotein particle concentrations, and cholesterol efflux capacity. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75(3):484-491. view abstract.
  40. Mutanen, M., Kleemola, P., Valsta, L. M., Mensink, R. P., and Rasanen, L. Lack of effect on blood pressure by polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat diets. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 1992;46(1):1-6. View abstract.
  41. Nicolaiew, N., Lemort, N., Adorni, L., Berra, B., Montorfano, G., Rapelli, S., Cortesi, N., and Jacotot, B. Comparison between extra virgin olive oil and oleic acid rich sunflower oil: effects on postprandial lipemia and LDL susceptibility to oxidation. Ann.Nutr.Metab 1998;42(5):251-260. view abstract.
  42. Nielsen, N. S., Marckmann, P., and Hoy, C. Effect of meal fat quality on oxidation resistance of postprandial VLDL and LDL particles and plasma triacylglycerol level. Br J Nutr 2000;84(6):855-863. view abstract.
  43. Normand, S., Khalfallah, Y., Louche-Pelissier, C., Pachiaudi, C., Antoine, J. M., Blanc, S., Desage, M., Riou, J. P., and Laville, M. Influence of dietary fat on postprandial glucose metabolism (exogenous and endogenous) using intrinsically (13)C-enriched durum wheat. Br.J.Nutr. 2001;86(1):3-11. view abstract.
  44. Nydahl, M., Gustafsson, I. B., Ohrvall, M., and Vessby, B. Similar serum lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in healthy subjects on diets enriched with rapeseed and with sunflower oil. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 1994;48(2):128-137. view abstract.
  45. Pedersen, A., Marckmann, P., and Sandstrom, B. Postprandial lipoprotein, glucose and insulin responses after two consecutive meals containing rapeseed oil, sunflower oil or palm oil with or without glucose at the first meal. Br J Nutr 1999;82(2):97-104. view abstract.
  46. Perez-Jimenez, F., Espino, A., Lopez-Segura, F., Blanco, J., Ruiz-Gutierrez, V., Prada, J. L., Lopez-Miranda, J., Jimenez-Pereperez, J., and Ordovas, J. M. Lipoprotein concentrations in normolipidemic males consuming oleic acid-rich diets from two different sources: olive oil and oleic acid-rich sunflower oil. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1995;62(4):769-775. view abstract.
  47. Perona, J. S., Canizares, J., Montero, E., Sanchez-Dominguez, J. M., Catala, A., and Ruiz-Gutierrez, V. Virgin olive oil reduces blood pressure in hypertensive elderly subjects. Clin.Nutr. 2004;23(5):1113-1121. view abstract.
  48. Ruiz-Gutierrez, V., Perona, J. S., Pacheco, Y. M., Muriana, F. J., and Villar, J. Incorporation of dietary triacylglycerols from olive oil and high-oleic sunflower oil into VLDL triacylglycerols of hypertensive patients. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 1999;53(9):687-693. view abstract.
  49. Sakr, S. W., Attia, N., Haourigui, M., Paul, J. L., Soni, T., Vacher, D., and Girard-Globa, A. Fatty acid composition of an oral load affects chylomicron size in human subjects. Br.J.Nutr. 1997;77(1):19-31. view abstract.
  50. Sanchez-Muniz, F. J., Merinero, M. C., Rodriguez-Gil, S., Ordovas, J. M., Rodenas, S., and Cuesta, C. Dietary fat saturation affects apolipoprotein AII levels and HDL composition in postmenopausal women. J.Nutr. 2002;132(1):50-54. view abstract.
  51. Sanders, T. A., Oakley, F. R., Cooper, J. A., and Miller, G. J. Influence of a stearic acid-rich structured triacylglycerol on postprandial lipemia, factor VII concentrations, and fibrinolytic activity in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73(4):715-721. view abstract.
  52. Serrano, Paz P., Gonzalez, Bueno, V, Diego, Estevez M., Medrano, J., Ballesta, M. C., Martinez-Victoria, E., Calpena, R., Mataix, J., and Yago, M. D. [Postoperative enteral nutrition with a high content of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids]. Nutr.Hosp. 1995;10(4):223-227. view abstract.
  53. Sola, R., La Ville, A. E., Richard, J. L., Motta, C., Bargallo, M. T., Girona, J., Masana, L., and Jacotot, B. Oleic acid rich diet protects against the oxidative modification of high density lipoprotein. Free Radic.Biol.Med. 1997;22(6):1037-1045. view abstract.
  54. Song, H. J., Grant, I., Rotondo, D., Mohede, I., Sattar, N., Heys, S. D., and Wahle, K. W. Effect of CLA supplementation on immune function in young healthy volunteers. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2005;59(4):508-517. view abstract.
  55. Thies, F., Garry, J. M., Yaqoob, P., Rerkasem, K., Williams, J., Shearman, C. P., Gallagher, P. J., Calder, P. C., and Grimble, R. F. Association of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with stability of atherosclerotic plaques: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2-8-2003;361(9356):477-485. view abstract.
  56. Tholstrup, T., Ehnholm, C., Jauhiainen, M., Petersen, M., Hoy, C. E., Lund, P., and Sandstrom, B. Effects of medium-chain fatty acids and oleic acid on blood lipids, lipoproteins, glucose, insulin, and lipid transfer protein activities. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2004;79(4):564-569. view abstract.
  57. Truswell, A. S. Comparing palmolein with different predominantly monounsaturated oils: effect on plasma lipids. Int.J.Food Sci.Nutr. 2000;51 Suppl:S73-S77. View abstract.
  58. Turini, M. E., Crozier, G. L., Donnet-Hughes, A., and Richelle, M. A. Short-term fish oil supplementation improved innate immunity, but increased ex vivo oxidation of LDL in man--a pilot study. Eur.J.Nutr. 2001;40(2):56-65. View abstract.
  59. Turpeinen, A. M., Alfthan, G., Valsta, L., Hietanen, E., Salonen, J. T., Schunk, H., Nyyssonen, K., and Mutanen, M. Plasma and lipoprotein lipid peroxidation in humans on sunflower and rapeseed oil diets. Lipids 1995;30(6):485-492. view abstract.
  60. Valsta, L. M., Jauhiainen, M., Aro, A., Katan, M. B., and Mutanen, M. Effects of a monounsaturated rapeseed oil and a polyunsaturated sunflower oil diet on lipoprotein levels in humans. Arterioscler.Thromb. 1992;12(1):50-57. view abstract.
  61. van Gool, C. J., Thijs, C., Henquet, C. J., van Houwelingen, A. C., Dagnelie, P. C., Schrander, J., Menheere, P. P., and van den brandt, P. A. Gamma-linolenic acid supplementation for prophylaxis of atopic dermatitis--a randomized controlled trial in infants at high familial risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77(4):943-951. view abstract.
  62. Vericel, E., Calzada, C., Chapuy, P., and Lagarde, M. The influence of low intake of n-3 fatty acids on platelets in elderly people. Atherosclerosis 11-1-1999;147(1):187-192. view abstract.
  63. Wagner, K. H., Tomasch, R., and Elmadfa, I. Impact of diets containing corn oil or olive/sunflower oil mixture on the human plasma and lipoprotein lipid metabolism. Eur.J.Nutr. 2001;40(4):161-167. view abstract.
  64. Wardlaw, G. M. and Snook, J. T. Effect of diets high in butter, corn oil, or high-oleic acid sunflower oil on serum lipids and apolipoproteins in men. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1990;51(5):815-821. view abstract.
  65. Weaver, B. J., Corner, E. J., Bruce, V. M., McDonald, B. E., and Holub, B. J. Dietary canola oil: effect on the accumulation of eicosapentaenoic acid in the alkenylacyl fraction of human platelet ethanolamine phosphoglyceride. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1990;51(4):594-598. view abstract.
  66. Wilkinson, P., Leach, C., Ah-Sing, E. E., Hussain, N., Miller, G. J., Millward, D. J., and Griffin, B. A. Influence of alpha-linolenic acid and fish-oil on markers of cardiovascular risk in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Atherosclerosis 2005;181(1):115-124. view abstract.
  67. Wuesten, O., Balz, C. H., Kloer, H. U., Bretzel, R. G., and Linn, T. Enhancement of beta-cell sensitivity to glucose by oral fat load. Horm.Metab Res. 2001;33(9):548-553. view abstract.
  68. Yago, M. D., Gonzalez, V., Serrano, P., Calpena, R., Martinez, M. A., Martinez-Victoria, E., and Manas, M. Effect of the type of dietary fat on biliary lipid composition and bile lithogenicity in humans with cholesterol gallstone disease. Nutrition 2005;21(3):339-347. view abstract.
  69. Zambell, K. L., Keim, N. L., Van Loan, M. D., Gale, B., Benito, P., Kelley, D. S., and Nelson, G. J. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in humans: effects on body composition and energy expenditure. Lipids 2000;35(7):777-782. view abstract.
  70. Zock, P. L., de Vries, J. H., and Katan, M. B. Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men. Arterioscler.Thromb. 1994;14(4):567-575. view abstract.
  71. Denke MA, Grundy SM. Comparison of effects of lauric acid and palmitic acid on plasma lipids and lipoproteins. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56:895-8. view abstract.
  72. Ferrara LA, Raimondi AS, d'Episcopo L, et al. Olive oil and reduced need for antihypertensive medications. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:837-42. view abstract.
  73. Freese R, Mutanen M. Alpha-linolenic acid and marine long-chain n-3 fatty acids differ only slightly in their effects on hemostatic factors in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:591-8. view abstract.
  74. Ghosh S, An D, Pulinilkunnil T, et al. Role of dietary fatty acids and acute hyperglycemia in modulating cardiac cell death. Nutrition 2004;20:916-23. view abstract.
  75. Higdon JV, Du SH, Lee YS, et al. Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil does not increase overall oxidation of LDL ex vivo compared to dietary oils rich in oleate and linoleate. J Lipid Res 2001;42:407-18. view abstract.
  76. Higdon JV, Liu J, Du S, et al. Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is not associated with greater in vivo lipid peroxidation compared with oils rich in oleate and linoleate as assessed by plasma malondialdehyde and F(2)- isoprostanes. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:714-22. view abstract.
  77. Hill AM, Buckley JD, Murphy KJ, Howe PR. Combining fish-oil supplements with regular aerobic exercise improves body composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:1267-74. view abstract.
  78. Lietz G, Henry CJ, Mulokozi G, et al. Comparison of the effects of supplemental red palm oil and sunflower oil on maternal vitamin A status. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:501-9. view abstract.
  79. Luo J, Rizkalla SW, Vidal H, et al. Moderate intake of n-3 fatty acids for 2 months has no detrimental effect on glucose metabolism and could ameliorate the lipid profile in type 2 diabetic men. Results of a controlled study. Diabetes Care 1998;21:717-24. view abstract.
  80. Madigan C, Ryan M, Owens D, et al. Dietary unsaturated fatty acids in type 2 diabetes: higher levels of postprandial lipoprotein on a linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil diet compared with an oleic acid-rich olive oil diet. Diabetes Care 2000;23:1472-7. view abstract.
  81. Marckmann P, Bladbjerg EM, Jespersen J. Dietary fish oil (4 g daily) and cardiovascular risk markers in healthy men. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997;17:3384-91. view abstract.
  82. Oosthuizen W, Vorster HH, Vermaak WJ, et al. Lecithin has no effect on serum lipoprotein, plasma fibrinogen and macro molecular protein complex levels in hyperlipidaemic men in a double-blind controlled study. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:419-24. view abstract.
  83. Pedersen A, Baumstark MW, Marckmann P, et al. An olive oil-rich diet results in higher concentrations of LDL cholesterol and a higher number of LDL subfraction particles than rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets. J Lipid Res 2000;41:1901-11. View abstract.
  84. Scholtz SC, Pieters M, Oosthuizen W, et al. The effect of red palm olein and refined palm olein on lipids and haemostatic factors in hyperfibrinogenaemic subjects. Thromb Res 2004;113:13-25. view abstract.
  85. Sorensen NS, Marckmann P, Hoy CE, et al. Effect of fish-oil-enriched margarine on plasma lipids, low-density lipoprotein particle composition, size, and susceptibility to oxidation. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:235-41. view abstract.
  86. Temme EH, Mensink RP, Hornstra G. Comparison of the effects of diets enriched in lauric, palmitic, or oleic acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins in healthy women and men. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:897-903. view abstract.
  87. Tholstrup T, Marckmann P, Jespersen J, Sandstrom B. Fat high in stearic acid favorably affects blood lipids and factor VII coagulant activity in comparison with fats high in palmitic acid or high in myristic and lauric acids. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59:371-7. view abstract.
  88. Vissers MN, Zock PL, Meijer GW, Katan MB. Effect of plant sterols from rice bran oil and triterpene alcohols from sheanut oil on serum lipoprotein concentrations in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1510-5. View abstract.