September 26, 2019

Your weight is largely controlled by hormones

Dein Gewicht wird zu einem großen Teil von Hormonen kontrolliert

1. insulin

Insulin is a peptide hormone that is produced by the beta cells in your pancreas. It is released in small amounts throughout the day and in larger amounts after meals. Insulin allows your body's cells to take up blood sugar for energy or storage, depending on what is needed at the time.

Insulin is the primary fat storage hormone in the body. It gives the fat cells the signal to store fat and prevents the breakdown of stored fat. When your cells are insulin resistant (a common condition), both blood sugar levels and insulin levels rise.

Chronically elevated insulin levels (a condition called hyperinsulinemia) can lead to many health problems including obesity and metabolic syndrome (4, 5, 6). Excessive food intake - especially when it comes to sugar, refined carbohydrates and fast food - promotes insulin resistance and increases insulin levels in the body (7, 8, 9).

Here are some tips to normalize insulin levels and improve insulin sensitivity:

Avoid or minimize sugar consumption: large amounts of fructose and sucrose (table sugar) promote insulin resistance and increase insulin levels (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15).
Reduce your carbohydrate intake: A low-carb diet can cause an immediate drop in insulin levels (16, 17, 18, 19).
Fill up on protein: Protein may cause a short-term spike in insulin levels, but it should lead to long-term reductions in insulin resistance by helping you lose belly fat (20, 21).
Include plenty of healthy fats in your diet: Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fatty fish among other foods, can help lower insulin levels in a fasting state (22).
Exercise regularly: In a study, overweight women who went for a brisk walk or jog saw an improvement in insulin sensitivity after 14 weeks (23, 24, 25).
Take enough magnesium: People who suffer from insulin resistance often have low magnesium levels and magnesium supplements can improve insulin sensitivity (26, 27, 28).
Drink green tea: Green tea may lower blood sugar levels and insulin levels (29, 30).

Summary: Insulin is the body's primary fat storage hormone. Reducing sugar and carbohydrate intake and exercising are the best ways to lower insulin levels.

2. leptin

The hormone leptin is produced by your fat cells. It is considered a satiety hormone that reduces appetite and gives you a feeling of fullness. As a signaling hormone, its role is to communicate with the hypothalamus - the part of the brain that regulates appetite and food intake.

Leptin signals to the brain that there is enough fat stored in fat cells and no further fat storage is needed, which helps to prevent overeating. People who are overweight or obese usually have very high levels of leptin in their blood. In fact, one study found that leptin levels were four times higher in obese people than in people of normal weight (31). If leptin regulates appetite, one would expect that obese people with high leptin levels should automatically begin to eat less and lose weight. Unfortunately, the leptin system does not work as it should in obese people. This is also known as leptin resistance. When leptin signaling is impaired, the message to stop eating doesn't reach the brain, so it doesn't recognize that you've stored enough energy (32, 33). Basically, your brain thinks you're starving, which is why you get the signal to eat more. Leptin levels drop when you lose weight, which is one of the main reasons why it's so hard to maintain your lower body weight long-term after dieting. The brain thinks you're starving and drives you to eat more (34, 35, 36). Two possible reasons for leptin resistance are chronically elevated insulin levels and inflammation in the hypothalamus (5, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41).

Here are a few recommendations to improve leptin sensitivity:

Avoid pro-inflammatory foods: limit your consumption of foods that cause or promote inflammation, which is especially true for sugary drinks and trans fats.
Eat certain foods: Eat more anti-inflammatory foods such as oily fish (42).
Exercise regularly: Moderate activity can improve leptin sensitivity (43, 44, 45).
Make sure you get enough sleep: Studies have shown that insufficient sleep can lead to a drop in leptin levels and an increased appetite (46, 47).
Use the right supplements: In one study, women who took alpha-lipoic acid and fish oil lost more weight during a weight loss diet than members of the control group and also showed a smaller drop in leptin levels (48).

Summary: Obese people tend to be resistant to the effects of leptin. Consuming anti-inflammatory foods, exercising regularly and getting enough sleep can help improve leptin sensitivity.

3. ghrelin

Ghrelin is also known as a hunger hormone. When your stomach is empty, it releases ghrelin, which sends a message to the hypothalamus that you should eat (49). Normally, ghrelin levels are highest before eating and lowest about an hour after a meal. However, in overweight and obese people, fasting ghrelin levels are often lower than in people of normal weight (50, 51).

Studies have also shown that after obese people have eaten a meal, ghrelin levels drop only slightly. Because of this scenario, the hypothalamus doesn't get as strong a signal to stop eating, which can lead to overeating (52).

Here are some tips to improve the function of ghrelin:

Sugar: Avoid high fructose corn syrup and sugar-sweetened beverages, which can interfere with ghrelin response after meals (53, 54).
Protein: Eat protein at every meal, especially breakfast, as protein can lower ghrelin levels and promote satiety (55, 56, 57, 58).

Summary: Eating plenty of protein and avoiding high-sugar foods and drinks can help optimize ghrelin levels.

4. cortisol

Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It is also known as the stress hormone as it is released when your body senses stress. Like other hormones, cortisol is a vital hormone. However, chronically elevated cortisol levels can lead to overeating and weight gain (59).

It appears that women who carry excess weight around their midsection respond to stress with a greater increase in cortisol levels (60, 61). However, a strict diet can also increase cortisol levels. In one study, women who followed a low-calorie diet had higher cortisol levels than women who ate normally and also reported feeling more stressed (62).

These strategies can lower cortisol levels:

Eat a balanced diet: follow a balanced diet based on real food centers. Don't reduce your calorie intake to extremely low levels.
Meditate: Meditation can significantly reduce cortisol production (63).
Listen to music: Scientists report that when soothing music is played during medical procedures, cortisol levels do not rise as much (64, 65).
Sleep more: One study found that when pilots lost 15 hours of sleep over the course of a week, their cortisol levels increased by 50 to 80% (66).

Summary: High cortisol levels can increase food intake and promote weight gain. A balanced diet, stress management and more sleep can help normalize cortisol production.

5. oestrogen

Oestrogen is the most important female sex hormone. It is mainly produced in the ovaries and is involved in regulating the female reproductive system. In men, oestrogen is produced from the male sex hormone by the aromatase enzyme. Both very high and low oestrogen levels can lead to weight gain. This depends on age, the actions of other hormones and general health. To maintain fertility during the reproductive years, estrogen begins to promote fat storage at puberty (67). In addition to this, it can stimulate an increase in body fat during the first half of pregnancy (67).

Obese women tend to have higher estrogen levels than normal-weight women, and some researchers believe this is related to environmental influences (68). During menopause, when estrogen levels drop as less estrogen is produced in the ovaries, the location of fat storage shifts from the hips and thighs toward visceral fat in the abdomen. This promotes insulin resistance and increases the risk of disease (69, 70).

These diet and lifestyle strategies can help control estrogen levels:

Fiber: Eat plenty of fiber if you want to reduce your estrogen levels (71, 72, 73).
Cruciferous vegetables: Eating cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cauliflower may have positive effects on estrogen levels (74, 75).
Flaxseed: Although the phytoestrogens contained in flaxseeds are controversial, flaxseeds appear to have positive effects on estrogen levels in most women (76, 77).
Exercise: Physical activity can help normalize estrogen levels in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women (78, 79).

Summary: When estrogen levels are too high or too low, weight gain can occur. This depends on age and other hormonal factors.

6 Neuropeptide Y (NPY)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a hormone produced by the cells of the brain and nervous system. It stimulates appetite - especially the appetite for carbohydrates - and its levels are highest during periods of fasting or food deprivation (80, 81, 82). Neuropeptide Y levels are elevated during times of stress, which can lead to overeating and abdominal fat gain (82, 83, 84).

Recommendations for lowering NPY:

Eat enough protein: eating too little protein has been shown to increase the release of NPY, leading to hunger, an increase in food intake and weight gain (85).
Don't fast for too long: Studies conducted with animals have shown that very prolonged fasting, such as fasting for more than 24 hours, can dramatically increase NPY levels (86, 87, 88).
Soluble fiber: Eating plenty of prebiotic fiber, which serves as food for friendly gut bacteria, can increase NPY levels (89).

Summary: Neuropeptide Y (NPY) stimulates hunger, which is particularly the case during fasting and periods of stress. Protein and soluble fiber can help reduce NPY levels.

7. glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a hormone produced by your digestive tract when nutrients enter the gut. GLP-1 plays an important role in stabilizing blood sugar levels and can also promote a feeling of fullness. Scientists believe that the reduction in appetite that occurs immediately after weight loss surgery is due in part to an increase in GLP-1 production (90). In one study, men who received a GLP-1 solution with breakfast reported a greater sense of satiety and ended up eating 12% fewer calories at lunch (91).

Recommendations for increasing GLP-1 levels:

Eat plenty of protein: Protein-rich foods such as fish, whey protein and yogurt have been shown to increase GLP-1 levels and improve insulin sensitivity (92, 93, 94).
Eat anti-inflammatory foods: Chronic inflammation is associated with reduced GLP-1 production (95).
Green-leafy vegetables: In one study, women who ate green-leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale experienced higher GLP-1 levels compared to the control group and also lost more weight (96).
Probiotics: In a study conducted with animals, a probiotic supplement increased GLP-1 levels, which led to a reduction in food intake (97).

Summary: GLP-1 can reduce appetite and increase weight loss. Consuming a high-protein diet that includes plenty of green vegetables may help increase GLP-1 levels.

8. cholecystokinin (CCK)

Similar to GLP-1, cholecystokinin (CCK) is another satiety hormone produced by the cells in your digestive tract (98). Higher levels of CCK have been shown to reduce food intake in both lean and obese people (99, 100, 101).

Strategies to increase CCK levels:

Protein: eat plenty of protein with every meal (102).
Healthy fats: Eating fat stimulates the release of CCK (103).
Dietary fiber: One study observed that CCK levels increased twice as much in men who ate a meal that included beans than in men who ate a low-fiber meal (104).

Summary: CCK is a hormone that reduces appetite and is produced when you eat protein, fat and fiber.

9. peptide YY (PYY)

Peptide YY (PYY) is another digestive tract hormone that controls appetite. Peptide YY is believed to play an important role in reducing food intake and reducing the risk of developing obesity (105, 106).

Strategies to increase peptide YY levels:

A lower carbohydrate diet: you should follow a lower carbohydrate diet based on unprocessed foods to keep blood glucose levels stable. Elevated blood glucose levels can interfere with the effects of PYY (58, 107, 108).
Protein: Eat plenty of protein from animal or plant sources (58, 109).
Fiber: Eat plenty of fiber (89, 110, 111).

Summary: To increase PYY levels and reduce appetite, try to avoid processed carbohydrates and eat plenty of protein and fiber.

Anything else?

Hormones work together to increase or decrease appetite and fat storage. If the system isn't working correctly, you may well find yourself struggling with weight issues on a regular basis. Fortunately, diet and lifestyle changes can have significant effects on these hormones.

References:

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